this is major issue in machine learning requires background in data mining and classification, would like the following in the paper: 1.definition 2.why its a problem 3.suggested solution 4.example from the literature

this is major issue in machine learning requires background in data mining and classification, would like the following in the paper:
1.definition
2.why its a problem
3.suggested solution
4.example from the literature

related paper are:

https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/hddplot/vignettes/QUICKhddplot.pdf

https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/hddplot/vignettes/QUICKhddplot.pdf
https://www.uvm.edu/~rsingle/stat380/F04/possible/Ambroise+McLachlan-PNAS-2002.pdf
http://homepages.ecs.vuw.ac.nz/~xuebing/Papers/ConnectionScienceMain2Revision.pdf